tree of first size - robust, majestic, reaching heights of 30 – 40 m
crown is oval to broadly spreading, variable in shape
is a shape unstable tree - when growing as a solitary tree it has a tendency to branch out
root system is cylindrical to heart-shaped
bark is brown, smooth
outer bark is light gray to dark gray, smooth even into old age, only rarely slightly longitudinally cracked at the base
Buds
they are arranged in a spiral, often alternately in two rows.
leafy ones are 15 - 30 x 3 - 5 mm large, spindle-shaped, pointed, sessile, bent away from the twig at an angle of 45°
flowery ones are 15 - 20 x 8 - 10 mm large, broadly ovate, acute
covering scales are multiple, reddish-brown, with grayish edges, ribbed
Shoots
they are rounded, olive green, gray pubescent, later reddish brown
small, yellowish lenticels
Leaves (assimilation organs)
simple, egg-shaped to elliptical, short-pointed, with a widely wedge-shaped base
margin entire, wavy to serrated
upper side dark green and glossy, lower side lighter, hairs present at least on the venation
stalk is 5 – 15 mm long
young leaves are silky hairy on both sides after unfolding, with long bristles along the edge
dropped leaves decompose slowly due to the high calcium content in the leaves, so the litter accumulates beneath the mother plant
Flowers
it is a monoecious woody plant, flowers are of different sexes
it blooms in May simultaneously with the unfolding of leaves
♂ flowers - catkins are globular, yellowish-green, drooping, catkins are on 2 - 3 cm long pcels
♀ flowers grow in pairs on a reddish-scaly bract that is 15 – 25 mm long on long shoots
Fruits – seeds
the fruit is a samara 10 - 15 x 10 mm in size, conical, sharply 3-angled, pointed, glossy, brown
the samaras are arranged in pairs in a woody spiny cup, and the cup opens after ripening with four valves
the seeds mature in September to October, with germination being relatively low at 60 - 80% and it retains viability for only half a year (similar to fir)
the seedling has two notably large cotyledons of a kidney shape and above them there are two primary opposite leaves that resemble normal leaves.
Extension
originally ± all of Europe with an oceanic climate, absent in warm areas with a lack of rainfall
in Slovakia 2 – 5 only except for lowlands and areas with a continental climate, from 300 to 1,260 m above the sea level (1,480 m above the sea level - Malá Fatra where it forms the upper limit of the forest)
Ecology
a shade-loving tree species, of an oceanic climate, requires a high nutrient content in the soil
it needs higher air and soil moisture and sufficient rainfall, avoiding both waterlogged and overly dry habitats
it grows well in fresh, nutrient-rich, and humus-rich soils
beech leaf litter decomposes better in good habitats, while in poorer ones it accumulates
it forms uniform stands, but also mixed stands with representatives of the oak genus (Quercus), white fir (Abies alba), and common spruce (Picea abies) depending on the altitude.
Significance
the wood is hard, strong, heavy, brittle, light pinkish in color, without core with mature wood (frequent occurrence of false core), which has uses in:
furniture production, sliced and peeled veneers
chemical processing - production of cellulose and other products (wood vinegar, alcohol, ...)
fruit-bearing tree - the fruits (beech mast - seeds) are mainly a significant source of food for forest game and birds during seed years
